Annual Report Formats
Go to AnnualReports.com and review the annual reports recently released by two corporations in the same industry. Review each report and discuss the following questions:
a. What organizational differences, if any, do you see in the way each corporation discusses its annual performance? Is the data presented clearly so that shareholders can draw conclusions about how well the company performed?
b. What goals, challenges, and plans do top managers emphasize in their discussion of results?
c. How does the format and organization of each report enhance or detract from the information being presented?
Write a two- to three-page report (excluding the title and reference pages), formatted according to APA style, that discusses your findings from the annual reports. Make sure you appropriately cite your sources from AnnualReports.com.
There are three important points to make.
• Discuss Any Organizational Differences in the Way Each Corporation Discusses its Annual Performance – This part of the assignment requires that you focus on the delivery of reporting the companies’ performance (the way each corporation discusses its annual performance) and not on the actual performance of the corporations. Please see attached Chapter 4.5, for example. You can also read attached Chapter 14.
• Discuss the Goals, Challenges, and Plans Top Managers Emphasize in Discussion of Results – This is your opportunity to demonstrate your understanding on adapting to your audience and this week’s course reading and attached Chapter 14.
• Discuss How the Format and Organization of Each Report Enhances or Detracts from the Information Presented – Chapter 4.5; use of visual design to support and enhance the message. You can also read attached Chapter 14.
FINALLY, use APA style of writing:
• Use double space, 1” margins on all sides, font size 12
• Use at least first level heading to separate the main points of your paper, which will help you write clearly and concisely and not stray off topic. Use bold and centering for first-level headings. Capitalize all major words. Do not use the prompt as a heading, shorten it, use different words, etc.
• The word conclusion is always used.
• Avoid the use of the first person (the pronouns I, we) and second person (the pronoun you). Avoid saying, “I think” or “I feel” or “in my opinion.” It weakens your argument. Simply state your assertion.
4.5 Organizing Your Information
Organization can make the difference between success and failure. Good organization helps your readers or listeners in three key ways. First,it helps them understand your message. In a well-organized message, you make the main point clear at the outset, present additional pointsto support that main idea, and satisfy all the information needs of the audience. But if your message is poorly organized, your meaning can beobscured, and your audiences may form inaccurate conclusions about what you’ve written or said.
Second, good organization helps receivers accept your message. If your writing appears confused and disorganized, people will likelyconclude that the thinking behind the writing is also confused and disorganized. Moreover, effective messages often require a bit more thansimple, clear logic. A diplomatic approach helps receivers accept your message, even if it’s not exactly what they want to hear. In contrast, apoorly organized message on an emotionally charged topic can alienate the audience before you have the chance to get your point across.
Good organization benefits your audiences by helping them understand and accept your message in less time.
Good organization helps you by reducing the time and creative energy needed to create effective messages.
Third, good organization saves your audience time. Well-organized messages are efficient. They contain only relevant ideas, and they arebrief. Moreover, each piece of information is located in a logical place in the overall flow; each section builds on the one before to create acoherent whole, without forcing people to look for missing pieces.
In addition to saving time and energy for your readers, good organization saves you time and consumes less of your creative energy. Writingmoves more quickly because you don’t waste time putting ideas in the wrong places or composing material that you don’t need. You spend farless time rewriting, trying to extract sensible meaning from disorganized rambling. Last but far from least, organizational skills are good foryour career because they help you develop a reputation as a clear thinker who cares about your readers.
Smart advice for brainstorming sessions
Generate better ideas in less time with these helpful tips. Go to http://real-timeupdates.com/bct13. Under “Students,” click on “LearnMore.”
Business Communicators Innovating with Mobile
As the third major revolution in business communication in the past two decades (after the World Wide Web and social media), mobilecommunication has the potential to change nearly every aspect of business communication. Here is a small sample of the ways companiesare putting mobile to work.
Training
In the face of changing markets, government regulations, and other forces in the business environment, developing and maintainingemployee skill sets is an ongoing challenge for most companies. The challenge is made even more difficult when employees are constantlyon the move or geographically dispersed. With training materials developed specifically for mobile devices, companies can deliver trainingcontent when and where it helps employees the most.8
Distributed Decision Making
A complementary aspect to managing remote workers via mobile apps is giving employees the authority to make decisions in the field,rather than relying on managers back in the office. In the oil and gas industry, for instance, specialized mobile apps include tools for datavisualization, collaboration, and data collection to help on-site employees and supervisors communicate and coordinate their efforts. Thiscapability can be particularly vital after accidents or other crisis events, because it lets employees who are on the scene choose the bestcourse of action without delay.9
Mobile Glossary
In addition to terms defined elsewhere in the book, here are some helpful mobile terms.
3G, 4G, and 5G
Successive generations of mobile phone technology, although the generational boundaries are loosely defined and each generationincludes a number of competing technologies; roughly speaking, we’re in a transition from 3G to 4G now, and 5G (whatever it ends upbeing) won’t arrive for at least several more years.
Android and iOS
The two major operating systems/platforms for mobile devices. Android devices are made by a wide variety of manufacturers, but iOSdevices are made only by Apple.
Bandwidth
A measure of the data-carrying capacity of a mobile, Wi-Fi, or other network connection; streaming video and other demandingapplications require a broadband connection, but there’s no general agreement on exactly what constitutes broadband.
Cellular Versus Mobile
Two terms for the same concept; cellular (derived from the way phone networks are configured) is used mainly in the United States,whereas mobile is used more generally around the world and is also more descriptive, so that’s the term used in this book.
Remote Workforce Management
Dispersed workforces also present a variety of supervision and management difficulties. Mobile workforce management apps can addressmany of these problems, from basic functions such as ensuring that workers show up on time at remote job sites to rescheduling customerappointments on the fly to collecting information to share with technical support staff. Sales managers can give just-in-time coaching andencouragement to representatives who are about to call on potential customers. Some systems can even embed information on bestpractices from experienced workers and deliver virtual coaching to less-experienced workers in the field.10
Recruiting
With a target population that is often on the move, companies are responding by integrating mobile into their recruiting processes. Theseefforts include mobile-friendly job postings, mobile application and recruiting apps, and interviewing systems that let candidates andrecruiters connect using their mobile devices.11
Project Management
Work teams are often dispersed over wide geographic ranges and frequently on the move, so mobile communication is an essentialelement of contemporary project management. Instant access to task status and other vital information helps project managers stay on topof rapidly moving projects and helps team members communicate efficiently
Context Awareness
A mobile device’s ability to modify its operation based on knowledge of where it is; silencing the ringer when you arrive at your office isa simple example.
Geofencing
Using the location-sensing capabilities of mobile devices to remotely monitor and control the device and its user; delivery companies, forexample, can monitor where their drivers are and make sure they stay within designated areas.
Over-the-Top (OTT) Application
A digital service that bypasses a traditional distribution network to provide similar capability, often by using cloud capabilities; anexample is WhatsApp using Internet connections to create services traditionally provided by mobile phone carriers.12
Phablet
A rather ungainly name for mobile devices that are larger than phones but smaller than tablets.
Quick Response (QR) Codes and Near-Field Communication (NFC)
Two ways for a mobile device to access additional information; QR codes are square, phone-scannable barcodes that connect the phoneto a website; NFC is a short-distance radio technology that enables a data link between a phone and tags that can be attached to productsor other locations.
The topic is the broad subject; the main idea makes a statement about the topic.
DEFINING YOUR MAIN IDEA
The topic of your message is the overall subject, and your main idea is a specific statement about that topic (see Table 4.2). For example, ifyou believe that the current system of using paper forms for filing employee insurance claims is expensive and slow, you might craft amessage in which the topic is employee insurance claims and the main idea is that a new web-based system would reduce costs for thecompany and reduce reimbursement delays for employees.
In longer documents and presentations, you often need to unify a mass of material with a main idea that encompasses all the individualpoints you want to make. Finding a common thread through all these points can be a challenge. Sometimes you won’t even be sure what yourmain idea is until you sort through the information. For tough assignments like these, consider a variety of techniques to generate creativeideas:
· Brainstorming. Working alone or with others, generate as many ideas and questions as you can, without stopping to criticize or organize.After you capture all these pieces, look for patterns and connections to help identify the main idea and the groups of supporting ideas. Forexample, if your main idea concerns whether to open a new restaurant in Denver, you’ll probably find a group of ideas related to financialreturn, another related to competition, and so on. Identifying such groups helps you see the major issues that will lead you to a conclusionyou can feel confident about.
· Journalistic approach. The journalistic approach (see page 97) asks who, what, when, where, why, and how questions to distill majorideas from unorganized information.
· Question-and-answer chain. Start with a key question, from the audience’s perspective, and work back toward your message. In mostcases, you’ll find that each answer generates new questions until you identify the information that needs to be in your message.
· Storyteller’s tour. Some writers find it best to talk through a communication challenge before they try to write. Record yourself as youdescribe what you intend to write. Then listen to the playback, identify ways to tighten and clarify the message, and repeat the processuntil you distill the main idea down to a single concise message.
· Mind mapping. You can generate and organize ideas using a graphic method called mind mapping. Start with a main idea and then branchout to connect every other related idea that comes to mind. You can find a number of free mind-mapping tools online.
MOBILE APPS
With Mindjet Maps, you can quickly build mind maps to brainstorm a writing project, using text boxes, photos, and more.
Limit the scope of your message so that you can convey your main idea as briefly as possible.
LIMITING YOUR SCOPE
The scope of your message is the range of information you present, the overall length, and the level of detail—all of which need to correspondto your main idea. The length of some business messages has a preset limit, whether from a boss’s instructions, the technology you’re using,or a time frame such as individual speaker slots during a seminar. Even if you don’t have a preset length, it’s vital to limit yourself to the scopeneeded to convey your main idea—and no more.
TABLE 4.2 Defining Topic and Main Idea
GeneralPurpose | Example of Specific Purpose | Example ofTopic | Example of Main Idea |
To inform | Teach customer service representativeshow to edit and expand the technicalsupport wiki | Technicalsupport wiki | Careful, thorough edits and additions to the wiki help theentire department provide better customer support. |
Topersuade | Convince top managers to increasespending on research and development | Funding forresearch anddevelopment | Competitors spend more than we do on research anddevelopment, enabling them to create more innovativeproducts. |
Tocollaborate | Solicit ideas for a companywide incentivesystem that ties wages to profits | Incentive pay | Tying wages to profits motivates employees and reducescompensation costs in tough years. |
Whatever the length of your message, limit the number of major supporting points to half a dozen or so—and if you can get your idea acrosswith fewer points, all the better. Listing 20 or 30 supporting points might feel as though you’re being thorough, but your audience is likely toview such detail as rambling and mind numbing. Instead, group your supporting points under major headings, such as finance, customers,competitors, employees, or whatever is appropriate for your subject. Look for ways to combine your supporting points so that you have asmaller number with greater impact.
The ideal length of a message depends on your topic, your audience members’ familiarity with the material, their receptivity to yourconclusions, and your credibility. You’ll need fewer words to present routine information to a knowledgeable audience that already knowsand respects you. You’ll need more words to build a consensus about a complex and controversial subject, especially if the members of youraudience are skeptical or hostile strangers.
CHOOSING BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT APPROACHES
After you’ve defined your main idea and supporting points, you’re ready to decide on the sequence you will use to present your information.You have two basic options:
· The direct approach starts with the main idea (such as a recommendation, a conclusion, or a request) and follows that with supportingevidence.
· The indirect approach starts with the evidence and builds up to the main idea.
To choose between these two alternatives, analyze your audience’s likely reaction to your purpose and message (see Figure 4.5). Bear inmind, however, that Figure 4.5 presents only general guidelines; always consider the unique circumstances of each message and audiencesituation. The following sections offer more insight on choosing the best approach for routine and positive messages, negative messages, andpersuasive messages.
The type of message also influences the choice of the direct or indirect approach. In the coming chapters, you’ll get specific advice onchoosing the best approach for a variety of communication challenges.
With the direct approach, you open with the main idea of your message and support it with reasoning, evidence, and examples.
With the indirect approach, you withhold the main idea until you have built up to it logically and persuasively with reasoning,evidence, and examples.
Figure 4.5 Choosing Between the Direct and Indirect Approaches
Think about the way your audience is likely to respond before choosing your approach.
OUTLINING YOUR CONTENT
Outlining saves time and helps you create more effective messages.
MOBILE APPS
Outliner is one of several apps that make it easy to create and modify writing outlines.
After you have chosen the best approach, it’s time to figure out the most logical and effective way to present your major points and supportingdetails. Get into the habit of creating outlines when you’re preparing business messages. You’ll save time, get better results, and do a betterjob of navigating through complicated business situations. Even if you’re just jotting down three or four key points, making an outline willhelp you organize your thoughts for faster writing. When you’re preparing a longer, more complex message, an outline is indispensablebecause it helps you visualize the relationships among the various parts.
You’re no doubt familiar with the basic outline formats that identify each point with a number or letter and that indent certain points to showwhich ones are of equal status. A good outline divides a topic into at least two parts, restricts each subdivision to one category, and ensuresthat each subdivision is separate and distinct (see Figure 4.6).
Another way to visualize the outline of your message is to create an organization chart similar to the charts used to show a company’smanagement structure. Put the main idea in the highest-level box to establish the big picture. The lower-level ideas, like lower-levelemployees, provide the details. All the ideas should be logically organized into divisions of thought, just as a company is organized intodivisions and departments.13 Using a visual chart instead of a traditional outline has many benefits. Charts help you (1) see the various levelsof ideas and how the parts fit together, (2) develop new ideas, and (3) restructure your information flow. The mind-mapping technique usedto generate ideas works in a similar way.
Whichever outlining or organizing scheme you use, start your message with the main idea, follow that with major supporting points, and thenillustrate these points with evidence.
REAL-TIME UPDATES LEARN MORE BY VIEWING THIS PRESENTATION
Get helpful tips on creating an outline for any project
Learn these proven steps for creating robust, practical outlines. Go to http://real-timeupdates.com/bct13. Under “Students,” click on“Learn More.”
The main idea establishes what you want your readers to do or think and why they should do so.
Start with the Main Idea
The main idea helps you establish the goals and general strategy of the message, and it summarizes two vital considerations: (1) what youwant your audience members to do or think and (2) why they should do so. Everything in your message should either support the main ideaor explain its implications. As discussed earlier, the direct approach states the main idea quickly and directly, whereas the indirect approachdelays the main idea until after the evidence is presented.
Figure 4.6 Structuring an Outline
No matter what outlining format you use, think through your major supporting points and the examples and evidence that can support eachpoint.
State the Major Points
You need to support your main idea with major points that clarify and explain the main idea in concrete terms. If your purpose is to informand the material is factual, your major points may be based on something physical or financial—something you can visualize or measure,such as activities to be performed, functional units, spatial or chronological relationships, or parts of a whole. When you’re describing aprocess, the major points are almost inevitably steps in the process. When you’re describing an object, the major points often correspond tothe parts of the object. When you’re giving a historical account, major points represent events in the chronological chain of events. If yourpurpose is to persuade or to collaborate, select major points that develop a line of reasoning or a logical argument that proves your centralmessage and motivates your audience to act.
Choose supporting points, evidence, and examples carefully; a few strong points will make your case better than a large collectionof weaker points.
Provide Examples and Evidence
After you’ve defined the main idea and identified major supporting points, think about examples and evidence that can confirm, illuminate, orexpand on your supporting points. Choose examples and evidence carefully so that these elements support your overall message withoutdistracting or overwhelming your audience. One good example, particularly if it is conveyed through a compelling story (see the next section),is usually more powerful than several weaker examples. Similarly, a few strong points of evidence are usually more persuasive than a largecollection of minor details. Keep in mind that you can back up your major supporting points in a variety of ways, depending on the subjectmaterial and the available examples and evidence (see Table 4.3).
If your schedule permits, put your outline aside for a day or two before you begin composing your first draft. Then review it with a fresh eye,looking for opportunities to improve the flow of ideas.
Figure 4.7 on the next page illustrates several of the key themes about organizing a message: helping readers get the information they needquickly, defining and conveying the main idea, limiting the scope of the message, choosing the approach, and outlining your information.
Type ofDetail | Example | Comment |
Facts andfigures | Sales are strong this month. We have two new contracts worth $5million and a good chance of winning another worth $2.5 million. | Enhances credibility more than any other type,but can become boring if used excessively. |
Example orillustration | We’ve spent four months trying to hire recent accounting graduates,but so far, only one person has joined our firm. One candidate told methat she would love to work for us, but she can get $10,000 more ayear elsewhere. | Adds life to a message, but one example does notprove a point. Idea must be supported by otherevidence as well. |
Description | Upscale hamburger restaurants target burger lovers who want morethan the convenience and low prices of a McDonald’s burger. Theseplaces feature wine and beer, half-pound burgers, and generous sidedishes (nachos, potato skins). Atmosphere is key. | Helps audience visualize the subject by creating asensory impression. Does not prove a point butclarifies it and makes it memorable. Begins withan overview of the function, defines its purpose,lists major parts, and explains how it operates. |
Narration(storytelling) | When Rita Longworth took over as CEO, she faced a tough choice:shut down the tablet PC division entirely or outsource manufacturingas a way to lower costs while keeping the division alive. As her firststep, she convened a meeting with all the managers in the division toget their input on the two options. (Story continues from there.) | Stimulates audience interest through the use ofdramatic tension. In many instances, must besupplemented with statistical data in order toprove a point convincingly. |
Reference toauthority | I discussed this idea with Jackie Loman in the Chicago plant, and shewas very supportive. As you know, Jackie has been in charge of thatplant for the past six years. She is confident that we can speed up thenumber 2 line by 150 units an hour if we add another worker. | Bolsters a case while adding variety andcredibility. Works only if authority is recognizedand respected by audience. |
Visual aids | Graphs, charts, tables, infographics, data visualization, photos, video | Helps audience grasp the key points about sets ofdata or visualize connections between ideas. |
TABLE 4.3 Six Types of Detail
Figure 4.7 Improving the Organization of a Message
This writer is following up on a conversation from the previous day, in which he and the recipient discussed which of two forms of ownership, apartnership or a corporation, they should use for their new company. (Partnership has a specific legal meaning in this context.) That question isthe topic of the message; the main idea is the recommendation that they incorporate, rather than form a partnership. Notice how the Improvedversion uses the direct approach to quickly get to the main idea and then supports that by comparing the advantages and disadvantages of bothforms of ownership. In contrast, the Poor version contains irrelevant information, makes the comparison difficult to follow, and buries the mainidea in the middle of the message.
BUILDING READER INTEREST WITH STORYTELLING TECHNIQUES
Storytelling might seem like an odd subject for a business communication course, but narrative techniques can be an effective way to organizemessages in a surprising number of business situations, from recruiting and training employees to enticing investors and customers.Storytelling is such a vital means of communicating that, in the words of management consultant Steve Tobak, “It’s hard to imagine yourcareer going anywhere if you can’t tell a story.”14 Fortunately, you’ve been telling stories all your life, so narrative techniques already comenaturally to you; now it’s just a matter of adapting those techniques to business situations.
You’ve already been on the receiving end of thousands of business stories: Storytelling is one of the most common structures used intelevision commercials and other advertisements. People love to share stories about themselves and others, too, which makes social mediaideal for storytelling.15
Career-related stories, such as how someone sought and found the opportunity to work on projects he or she is passionate about, can enticeskilled employees to consider joining a firm. Entrepreneurs use stories to help investors see how their new ideas have the potential to affectpeople’s lives (and therefore generate lots of sales). Stories can be cautionary tales as well, dramatizing the consequences of career blunders,ethical mistakes, and strategic missteps.
A key reason storytelling can be so effective is that stories help readers and listeners imagine themselves living through the experience of theperson in the story. Chip Heath of Stanford University and his brother, Dan Heath of Duke University, have spent years exploring the questionof why some ideas “stick” and others disappear. One of their conclusions is that ideas conveyed through storytelling tend to thrive becausestories “put knowledge into a framework that is more lifelike, more true to our day-to-day existence.”16
Storytelling is an effective way to organize many business messages because it helps readers personalize the message andunderstand causes and consequences.
In addition, stories can demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships in a compelling fashion.17 Imagine attending a new employee orientationand listening to the trainer read off a list of ethics rules and guidelines. Now imagine the trainer telling the story of someone who sounded alot like you in the very near future, fresh out of college and full of energy and ambition. Desperate to hit demanding sales targets, the personin the story began entering transactions before customers had actually agreed to purchase, hoping the sales would eventually come throughand no one would be the wiser. However, the scheme was exposed during a routine audit, and the rising star was booted out of the companywith an ethical stain that would haunt him for years. You may not remember all the rules and guidelines, but chances are you will rememberwhat happened to that person who sounded a lot like you. This ability to share organizational values is one of the major benefits of usingstorytelling in business communication, particularly across diverse workforces.18
Organize stories in three parts: a beginning that introduces a sympathetic person with a dream or a challenge, a middle thatshows the obstacles to be overcome, and an ending that resolves the situation and shows the moral or message of the story.
A classic story has three basic parts. The beginning of the story presents someone whom the audience can identify with in some way, and thisperson has a dream to pursue or a problem to solve. (Think of how movies and novels often start by introducing a likable character whoimmediately gets into danger, for example.) The middle of the story shows this character taking action and making decisions as he or shepursues the goal or tries to solve the problem. The storyteller’s objective here is to build the audience’s interest by increasing the tension:Will the “hero” overcome the obstacles in his or her path and defeat whatever adversary is keeping him or her away from her goal?19 The endof the story answers that question and usually offers a lesson to be learned about the outcome as well.
By the way, even though these are “stories,” they must not be made-up tales. Telling stories that didn’t happen to people who don’t exist whilepresenting them as real-life events is a serious breach of ethics that damages a company’s credibility.20
Consider adding an element of storytelling whenever your main idea involves the opportunity to inspire, to persuade, to teach, or to warnreaders or listeners about the potential outcomes of a particular course of action.
For fresh ideas and media materials on planning messages, visit http://real-timeupdates.com/bct13 and click on Chapter 4. For a quickrefresher on message-planning tasks, see “Checklist: Planning Business Messages.”
CHECKLIST ✓ Planning Business Messages
A. Analyze the situation.
. Determine whether the purpose of your message is to inform, persuade, or collaborate.
. Identify what you want your audience to think or do after receiving the message.
. Make sure your purpose is worthwhile and realistic.
. Make sure the time is right for your message.
. Make sure your purpose is acceptable to your organization.
. Identify the primary audience.
. Determine the size and composition of your audience.
. Estimate your audience’s level of understanding and probable reaction to your message.
· Gather information.
. Decide whether to use formal or informal techniques for gathering information.
. Find out what your audience needs to know.
. Provide all required information and make sure it’s accurate, ethical, and pertinent.
· Select the best combination of medium and channel for your message.
. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of oral, written, and visual medium distributed through both digital andnondigital channels.
. Consider media richness, formality, media limitations, urgency, cost, and audience preference.
· Organize your information.
. Define your main idea.
. Limit your scope.
. Choose the direct or indirect approach.
. Outline content by starting with the main idea, adding major points, and illustrating with evidence.
. Look for opportunities to use storytelling to build audience interest.
COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES AT H&R Block
Robert Turtledove, H&R Block’s chief marketing officer, was impressed enough with your communication skills and social media experienceto add you to the team that markets H&R Block’s digital tax-preparation solutions. Using the insights you gained in this chapter, addressthese two communication challenges.
INDIVIDUAL CHALLENGE: Your first assignment is to write a 50-word introduction to the H&R Block tax software that can be usedwhenever the company needs a concise summary. For example, your text will be loaded into the IM chat system so that whenever anyoneasks about the software, customer service representatives can send your text with just one mouse click. Visit the HR Block website to learnmore about the various versions of its software. Use this information to write your 50-word summary and then email it to your instructor.
TEAM CHALLENGE: An ongoing dilemma for marketers in many industries is trying to offer targeted products and services that meet theneeds of specific market segments without creating so many versions that the range of choices overwhelms the consumer. For example, H&RBlock can help taxpayers in a variety of ways: several versions of web-based tax software, several versions of downloadable software,professional preparation, and a hybrid service called Best of Both, in which the taxpayer does most of the work using the software and anH&R Block professional helps with advice and verification. Simply helping consumers understand the choices available can become aconsiderable communication challenge in its own right.
With your team, analyze the company’s website in terms of its ability to help a taxpayer understand the various options and choose the onethat meets his or her unique needs. For example, are the services clearly distinguished from one another, and can the average taxpayerunderstand the distinctions being made? What improvements might you suggest? Prepare a brief summary of your analysis as a classpresentation or a post on your class blog, as your instructor directs.
14.1 Applying the Three-Step Writing Process
1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Adapt the three-step writing process to reports and proposals.
14.1 Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals
Whether they are printed documents or online resources, reports are written accounts that objectively communicate information aboutsome aspect of a business (see Figure 14.1). Informational reports offer data, facts, feedback, and other types of information, withoutanalysis or recommendations. Analytical reports offer both information and analysis and can also include recommendations. Proposals area special category of reports that combine information delivery and persuasive communication.
The nature of these reports can vary widely, depending on the circumstances. Some of the reports you write will be voluntary, launched atyour own initiative and following whatever structure you find most effective. Other reports will be in response to a manager’s or customer’srequest, and you may or may not receive guidance regarding the organization and content. You’ll also write reports that follow strict, specificguidelines for content and layout.
The purpose and content of business reports varies widely; in some cases, you’ll follow strict guidelines, but in others, theorganization and format will be up to you.
Your audience will sometimes be internal, which gives you more freedom to discuss sensitive information. At other times, your audiencemight include customers, investors, community members, or news media, any of which can create additional demands as you presentcompany information to such external groups.
Many of your reports will be written for internal audiences, but you’re also likely to write reports for a wide range of outsidereaders.
Finally, your reports will vary widely in length and complexity. You may write one-page memo- or letter-format reports that are simple andstraightforward. Or you may write reports that cover complicated subjects, running into hundreds or even thousands of pages and involvingmultiple writers.
No matter what the circumstances, preparing reports requires all the skills and knowledge that you’ve gained throughout this course and willcontinue to gain on the job. View every business report as an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of business challenges andyour ability to contribute to your organization’s success.
By adapting the three-step writing process, you can reduce the time required to write effective reports and still produce documents that makelasting and positive impressions on your audiences. The concepts are the same as those you explored in Chapters 4 through 6 and applied toshorter messages in Chapters 10 through 12. However, the emphasis on specific tasks can vary considerably. For instance, planning can takedays or weeks for a complex report or proposal.
Given the length and complexity of many reports, it’s crucial to define your purpose clearly so you don’t waste time with avoidablerework.
ANALYZING THE SITUATION
The complexity of most reports and the magnitude of the work involved heighten the need to analyze the situation carefully. With an email oranother short message, you can change direction halfway through the first draft and perhaps lose only a few minutes of work. In contrast, ifyou change direction halfway through a major report, you could lose days of work. To minimize that chance, pay special attention to yourstatement of purpose. In addition, for anything beyond the simplest reports, take the time to prepare a work plan before you start writing.
Figure 14.1 Common Types of Business Reports and Proposals
You will have the opportunity to read and write many types of reports in your career; here are some of the most common.
Defining Your Purpose
Informational reports often address a predetermined need and must meet specific audience expectations. For example, you may be asked towrite reports that verify your company’s compliance with government regulations, that summarize sales, or that monitor a process—all ofwhich have audiences who expect certain information in a certain format. With other informational reports, you will need to uncoveraudience needs before you can define the optimum purpose.
In some cases, you’ll be told the purpose of the report; in others, it’s up to you to identify the purpose.
Analytical reports and proposals are almost always written in response to a perceived problem or a perceived opportunity. A clear statementof this problem or opportunity helps frame the communication challenge by identifying what you’re going to write about, but it’s insufficientto guide your writing efforts. To plan effectively, address the problem or opportunity with a clear statement of purpose that defines why youare preparing the report (see Table 14.1 on the next page).
The most useful way to phrase your purpose statement is to begin with an infinitive phrase (to plus a verb). Using an infinitive phraseencourages you to take control and decide where you’re going before you begin. When you choose an infinitive phrase (such as to inform, toconfirm, to analyze, to persuade, or to recommend), you pin down your general goal in preparing the report. Consider these examples forinformational reports:
TABLE 14.1 Problem Statements versus Purpose Statements
Problem Statement | Statement of Purpose |
Our company’s market share is steadily declining. | To explore new ways of promoting and selling our products and torecommend the approaches most likely to stabilize our market share |
Our current computer network lacks sufficientbandwidth and cannot be upgraded to meet our futureneeds. | To analyze various networking options and to recommend the system that willbest meet our company’s current and future needs |
We need $2 million to launch our new product. | To convince investors that our new business would be a sound investment sothat we can obtain desired financing |
Our current operations are too decentralized andexpensive. | To justify the closing of the Newark plant and the transfer of East Coastoperations to a single Midwest location in order to save the company money |
· To update clients on the progress of the research project (progress report)
· To develop goals and objectives for the coming year (strategic plan)
· To identify customers and explain how the company will serve them (marketing plan)
· To submit monthly sales statistics to management (operating report)
· To summarize what occurred at the annual sales conference (personal activity report)
· To explain building access procedures (policy implementation report)
· To submit required information to the Securities and Exchange Commission (compliance report)
The statement of purpose for an analytical report often needs to be more comprehensive than a statement for an informational report. Forexample, a report suggesting ways to reduce employee travel and entertainment (T&E) costs might have the following as a statement ofpurpose:
. . . to analyze the T&E budget, evaluate the impact of recent changes in airfares and hotel costs, and suggest ways to tighten management’scontrol over T&E expenses.
If the writer had been assigned an informational report instead, she might have stated her purpose differently:
To summarize the company’s spending on travel and entertainment
You can see from these two examples how much influence the purpose statement has on the scope of your report. Because she was assignedan analytical report rather than an informational report, the writer had to go beyond merely collecting data; she had to draw conclusions andmake recommendations. (You can see the full report based on this statement of purpose in Chapter 15.)
Proposals must also be guided by a clear and specific statement of purpose to help you focus on crafting a persuasive message. Here areseveral examples:
To secure $400k of funding in next year’s capital budget for a new conveyor system in the warehouse (funding proposal)
To get management approval to reorganize the North American salesforce (general project proposal)
To secure $2 million in venture capital funding to complete design and production of the new line of titanium mountain bikes (investmentproposal as part of a business plan) To convince CommuniCo to purchase a trial subscription to our latest database offering (sales proposal)
Preparing Your Work Plan
You’re already accustomed to some schedule pressure with school reports. This is good practice for your business career, in which you’ll beexpected to produce quality reports quickly and efficiently. Carefully thinking out a work plan is the best way to make sure you produce goodwork on schedule. By identifying all the tasks that must be performed, you ensure that nothing is overlooked (see Figure 14.2).
A detailed work plan saves time and often produces more effective reports.
Figure 14.2 Work Plan for a Report
A formal work plan such as this is a vital tool for planning and managing complex writing projects. The preliminary outline here helps guide theresearch; the report writers may well modify the outline when they begin writing the report.
If you are preparing a work plan for yourself, it can be relatively informal: a simple list of the steps you plan to take and an estimate of theirsequence and timing. However, for more complicated projects, particularly those that involve multiple team members, you’ll want to preparea formal, detailed work plan that can guide the performance of many tasks over a span of time. For consultants and others whose work outputis a formal report, the work plan can also become the basis for a contract if the proposal is accepted. A formal work plan might include thefollowing elements (especially the first two):
· Statement of the problem or opportunity. The problem statement clarifies the challenge you face, helps you (and anyone working withyou) stay focused on the core issues, and helps everyone avoid the distractions that are likely to arise along the way.
· Statement of the purpose and scope of your investigation. The purpose statement describes what you plan to accomplish andtherefore also defines the boundaries of your work. Delineating which subjects you will cover and which you won’t is especially importantfor complex investigations.
· Discussion of tasks to be accomplished. For simple reports, the list of tasks to be accomplished will be short and probably obvious.However, longer reports and complex investigations require an exhaustive list so that you can reserve time with customers, withexecutives, or for outside services, such as market researchers or print shops.
· Description of any additional products or activities that will result from your investigation. In many cases, the only outcome of yourefforts will be the report itself. In other cases, you’ll need to produce something or perform some task in addition to completing thereport. Make such expectations clear at the outset.
· Review of project assignments, schedules, and resource requirements. Indicate who will be responsible for what, when tasks will becompleted, and how much the investigation will cost. If more than one person will be involved, you may also want to include a briefsection on coordinating report writing and production, such as whether you’ll use a wiki to develop the report content. If constraints ontime, money, personnel, or data are likely to affect the quality of the report, identify these limitations up front.
· Plans for following up after delivering the report. Follow-up can be as simple as making sure people received the information theyneed or as complex as conducting additional research to evaluate the results of proposals included in your report. Even informal follow-upcan help you improve your future reports and communicate that you care about your work’s effectiveness and its impact on theorganization.
· Working outline. Some work plans include a tentative outline of the report, as does the plan in Figure 14.2.
GATHERING INFORMATION
The amount of information needed in many reports and proposals requires careful planning—and may even require a separate researchproject just to get the data and information you need. As Chapter 13 emphasizes, you should prioritize your information needs before youstart and focus on the most important questions. Whenever possible, try to reuse or adapt existing information to save time.
Some reports require formal research projects in order to gather all the necessary information.
SELECTING THE BEST MEDIA AND CHANNELS
In addition to the general media selection criteria discussed in Chapter 4, consider several points for reports and proposals. First, for manyreports and proposals, audiences have specific media requirements, and you might not have a choice. For instance, executives in manycorporations now expect to review many reports via their in-house intranets, sometimes in conjunction with an executive dashboard, acustomized online presentation of highly summarized business information. Executive dashboards are particularly helpful for accessingreport content on mobile devices (see Figure 14.3).
MOBILE APPS
Sage Evolution Executive Dashboard and Databox are two of the executive dashboard apps available for mobile devices.
In some situations, you may be required to use a specific medium for your reports.
Second, consider how your audience members want to provide feedback on your report or proposal. Do they prefer to write comments on aprinted document or edit a wiki article? Third, will people need to search through your document electronically or update it in the future?Fourth, bear in mind that your choice of medium sends a message. For instance, a routine sales report dressed up in expensive multimediawill look like a waste of valuable company resources.
Figure 14.3 Executive Dashboards
To help managers avoid information overload, many companies now use executive dashboards to present carefully filtered highlights of keyperformance parameters. Dashboards are essentially super-summarized reports. The latest generation of software and mobile apps make iteasy to customize screens to show each manager the specific summaries he or she needs to see.
eSource: Executive Dashboards from My Business Online, powered by Pastel. Copyright © by Sandra Claassen. Used by permission of SandraClaassen.
ORGANIZING YOUR INFORMATION
The length and complexity of most reports and proposals require extra emphasis on clear, reader-oriented organization. Your readers mighthave the patience to struggle through a short, disorganized email message but not through a poorly organized 200-page report. As Chapters 4discusses, when an audience is likely to be receptive or at least open-minded, use the direct approach: Lead with a summary of your keyfindings, conclusions, recommendations, or proposal, whichever is relevant. This “up-front” arrangement is by far the most popular andconvenient for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow. For those who have questions or want moreinformation, later parts of the report provide complete findings and supporting details. The direct approach also produces a more forcefulreport. You sound sure of yourself when you state your conclusions confidently at the outset.
Most business reports use the direct approach.
At times, however, confidence may be misconstrued as arrogance. If you’re a junior member of a status-conscious organization, or if youraudience is skeptical or hostile, consider the indirect approach: Introduce your complete findings and discuss all supporting details beforepresenting your conclusions and recommendations. The indirect approach gives you a chance to prove your points and gradually overcomeyour audience’s reservations. By deferring the conclusions and recommendations to the end of your report, you imply that you’ve weighedthe evidence objectively. You also imply that you’re subordinating your judgment to that of the audience, whose members are capable ofdrawing their own conclusions when they have access to all the facts.
Use the indirect approach when you need to build support for your main idea or you want to avoid coming across as arrogant.
Figure 14.4 Direct Approach Versus Indirect Approach in an Introduction
In the direct version of this introduction, the writer quickly presents the report’s recommendation, followed by the conclusions that led to thatrecommendation. In the indirect version, the same topics are introduced in the same order, but no conclusions are drawn about them (theconclusions and the ultimate recommendation appear later, in the body of the report).
Although the indirect approach has advantages, some readers will always be in a hurry to get to the answer and will immediately flip to therecommendations anyway, thus defeating your purpose. Therefore, consider length before choosing the direct or indirect approach. Ingeneral, the longer the message, the less effective an indirect approach is likely to be.
Long reports sometimes combine direct and indirect approaches, building support for interim conclusions or recommendationsalong the way.
Because both direct and indirect approaches have merit, businesspeople often combine them. They reveal their conclusions andrecommendations as they go along rather than put them either first or last. Figure 14.4 presents the introductions from two reports that follow the same general outline. In the direct version, a series of statements summarizes the conclusion reached in relation to each main topicin the outline. In the indirect version, the same topics are introduced in the same order but without drawing any conclusions about them.Instead, the conclusions appear within the body of the report.
TABLE 14.2 Types of outline Headings
DESCRIPTIVE (TOPICAL) OUTLINE | INFORMATIVE (TALKING) OUTLINE | |
Question form | Summary form | |
1. Industry Characteristics
a. Annual sales b. Profitability c. Growth rate i. Sales ii. Profit |
1. What is the nature of the industry?
a. What are the annual sales? b. Is the industry profitable? c. What is the pattern of growth? i. Sales growth? ii. Profit growth? |
1. Flour milling is a mature industry.
a. Market is large. b. Profit margins are narrow. c. Growth is modest. i. Sales growth averages less than 3 percent a year. ii. Profits are flat. |
Regardless of the format, length, or order of your report, think carefully about how your ideas will be subdivided and developed. Take care tochoose the most logical argument structure—one that suits your topic and goals and that makes sense to your audience.
Audience expectations are one of the most important considerations when deciding on the organization of your report.
As you outline your content, use informative (“talking”) headings rather than simple descriptive (“topical”) headings (see Table 14.2). With aquestion or summary form, informative headings force you to really think through the content rather than simply identify the general topicarea. Using informative headings also facilitates collaborative writing by reducing ambiguity about what each person needs to write.
For a quick review of adapting the three-step process to long reports, refer to “Checklist: Adapting the Three-Step Process to Reports andProposals.” The following sections provide specific advice on how to plan informational reports, analytical reports, and proposals.
CHECKLIST ✓ Adapting the Three-Step Process to Reports and Proposals
A. Analyze the situation.
. Clearly define your purpose before you start writing.
. If you need to accomplish several goals in the report, identify them all in advance.
. Prepare a work plan to guide your efforts.
· Gather information.
. Determine whether you need to launch a separate research project to collect the necessary information.
. Reuse or adapt existing material whenever possible.
· Select the best medium.
. Base your decision on audience expectations or requirements.
. Consider the need for commenting, revising, distributing, and storing.
. Remember that the medium you choose also sends a message.
· Organize your information.
. Use the direct approach if your audience is receptive.
. Use the indirect approach if your audience is skeptical.
. Use the indirect approach when you don’t want to risk coming across as arrogant.
. Combine approaches if doing so will help build support for your primary message.
2 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Explain the difference between structured and free-form slides, and suggest when each design strategy is more appropriate.
17.2 Choosing Structured or Free-Form Slides
The most important design choice you face when creating slides is whether to use conventional structured slides or the looser, free-formslides that many presentation specialists now advocate. Compare the two rows of slides in Figure 17.2. The structured slides in the top rowfollow the same basic format throughout the presentation; in fact, they’re based directly on the templates built into PowerPoint, which tend tofeature lots of bullet points.
Structured slides are usually based on templates that give all the slides in a presentation the same general look.
The free-form slides in the bottom row don’t follow a rigid structure. However, choosing a free-form design strategy does not mean youshould just randomly change the design from one slide to the next. Effectively designed slides should still be unified by design elements suchas color and typeface selections, as Figures 17.2c and 17.2d show. Also, note how Figure 17.2d combines visual and textual messages toconvey the point about listening without criticizing. This complementary approach of pictures and words is a highlight of free-form design.
Free-form slides typically don’t follow any set design plan but are unified by color and other elements.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED SLIDES
Structured slides have the advantage of being easy to create; you simply choose an overall design scheme for the presentation, select atemplate for a new slide, and start typing. If you’re in a schedule crunch, going the structured route might save the day because at least you’llhave something ready to show. Given the speed and ease of creating them, structured slides can be a more practical choice for routinepresentations such as project status updates.
Structured slides are usually the best choice for project updates and other routine information presentations, particularly if theslides are intended to be used only once.
Also, because more information can usually be packed on each slide, carefully designed structured slides can be more effective at conveyingcomplex ideas or sets of interrelated data to the right audiences. For example, if you are talking to a group of executives who must decidewhere to make budget cuts across the company’s eight divisions, at some point in the presentation they will probably want to see summarydata for all eight divisions on a single slide for easy comparison. Such a slide would be overcrowded by the usual definition, but this might bethe only practical way to get a “big picture” view of the situation. (The best solution is probably some high-level, summary slides supported bya detailed handout, as “Creating Effective Handouts” on page 473 explains.)
Figure 17.2 Structured Versus Free-Form Slide Design
Compare the rigid, predictable design of the two slides in the top row with the free-form designs in the bottom row. Although the two free-formslides don’t follow the same design structure, they are visually linked by color and font choices. As you compare these two styles, you canimagine how the free-form designs will require more slides to cover the same subject and require the speaker to convey more of the message.
(Note that Figure 17.2d is a lighthearted but effective way of conveying the first bullet point in Figure 17.2b.)
The primary disadvantage of structured design is that mind-numbing effect Garr Reynolds describes, caused by text-heavy slides that all lookalike. Slide after slide of dense, highly structured bullet points with no visual relief can put an audience to sleep.
Structured slide designs, which can lead to screen after screen of identical-looking bullet points, can be boring and overwhelming.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FREE-FORM SLIDES
Free-form slide designs can overcome the drawbacks of text-heavy structured design. Such slides can fulfill three criteria researchers haveidentified as important for successful presentations: (1) providing complementary information through both textual and visual means; (2)limiting the amount of information delivered at any one time to prevent cognitive overload; and (3) helping viewers process information byidentifying priorities and connections, such as by highlighting the most important data points in a graph.5 (Of course, well-designedstructured slides can also meet these criteria, but the constraints of prebuilt templates make doing so more of a challenge.)
Well-designed free-form slides help viewers understand, process, and remember the speaker’s message while keeping the focuson what the speaker is saying.
With appropriate imagery and thoughtful design, free-form designs can also create a more dynamic and engaging experience for the audience. Given their ability to excite and engage, free-form designs are particularly good for motivational, educational, and persuasive presentations—particularly when the slides will be used multiple times and therefore compensate for the extra time and effort required to create them. Bytaking advantage of the animation capabilities in PowerPoint or Keynote, it is also possible to create some of the dynamic, flowing feel of aPrezi.
A key disadvantage of free-form slide designs is the time and effort that can be required to create them.
Free-form slides have several potential disadvantages, however. First, effectively designing slides with both visual and textual elements ismore creatively demanding and more time consuming than simply typing text into preformatted templates. The emphasis on visual contentalso requires more images, which take time to find.
Second, because far less textual information tends to be displayed on screen, the speaker is responsible for conveying more of the content. Ideally, of course, this is how a presentation should work, but presenters sometimes find themselves in less than ideal circumstances, such asbeing asked to fill in for a colleague on short notice.
Third, if not handled carefully, the division of information into smaller chunks can make it difficult to present complex subjects in a cohesive, integrated manner. For instance, if you’re discussing a business problem that has five interrelated causes, it might be helpful to insert aconventional bullet-point slide as a summary and reminder after discussing each problem on its own.
Previous answers to this question
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